D.+Natalie+F


 * __THE CELTIC PERIOD__**

The early period is referred to as Hallstat as it has been named after a mountain village in Austria. It is named Hallstatt because it is the earliest found phase of Celtic life.
 * Why is the early period referred to as ‘Hallstatt’?**

The Celt's wealth was based upon the ability of being able to melt iron, bronze and gold into objects. They were known to trade and import goods such as weapons and luxurious items.
 * During the above period/culture, on what was the Celts’ wealth based?**

The latter period is referred to as 'La Tene' after a site on Lake Neuchatel in Switzerland where thousands of objects found in shallow water. These objects were spiritually broken and thrown into the 'deep' (the lake) as offerings to the water dieties. The forces of nature are extremely significant to the Celts, hence the naming of the later period 'La Tene'.
 * Why is the later period referred to as ‘La Tene’?**

The distinguishing feature about this particular period is the establishment of great Celtic art and knowledge. They developed curvilinear artstyle and were advanced in medical areas.
 * What was a distinguishing feature of the above period/culture?**


 * Sacred Places: VIERECKSCHANZEN**

Viereckschanzen are enclosures which are regarded as sacred sites. They are traced back to the pre-Roman/La Tene period. These sites are claimed to have spiritual significance within the Celtic tradition and were associated with various rituals. Viereckschanzen played a great role in the Celtic tradition as they were physical representations of communal areas they were permitted to worship their 'Gods' and offer sacrifices.
 * What is it?**


 * Where can it be found?**
 * The majority of these sacred sites are found in Germany, Bavaria (in Munich). Existing Viereckschanzen are also found ranging across France to Bohemia. **

Viereckschanzen are the ritual sacred sites in which the Celts followed out their traditions, worship and sacrifice. They are described as ditches or pits that were enclosed by walls hand had only one entrance. They are rectangular and not found to be any bigger than 1 hectare. A disticntive feature of Viereckschanzen are their elaborate gate constructions which symbolises spiritual significance. Within these sacred sites, statues and symbols of Celtic 'Gods' were contained along with various offerings to the Gods. There is no evidence as to what was practiced within these sites, although it is predicted that human sacrifice is a valid theory.
 * Describe it.**

[|Diagram of Viereckschanzen]
 * From your description, construct a drawing of Viereckschanzen.**


 * What was the purpose of it?**
 * Viereckschanzen were sanctuaries where people went to worship and enrich themselves in the Celtic religion. It can be seen as a representation of a 'temple' where followers could come together and pray to their 'Gods'. Sacrifice and traditional rituals were also performed, especially in groups to acknowledge the significance of the supernatural powers. There is no concrete of evidence of what particular rituals were performed, although it is predicted that human sacrifice was practiced. **

•There are approximately 200 Veireckschanzen in Bavaria today. • Orginated from the Late Celtic Era - 100-15 BCE. • "Viereck" is German for 'Four Corner'. This suggests its rectangular shape.
 * Any other interesting information?**

__Judaism SST's__

 * Semitic -** The belief in one God.
 * Covenant -** An agreement or promise.
 * Decalogue -** The 10 Commandments.
 * Mitzvot -** The 613 Laws.
 * Patriarch -** Any biblical figures as fathers of the human race, Especially Abraham and Isaac.
 * Torah -** A scroll containing the law of God as revealed to Moses and recorded in the first five books of the Hebrew Scriptures.
 * Exodus -** The second book of the Bible which recounts the departure of the Israelites from the Slavery of Egypt, their journey through the red sea and through the wilderness led by Moses.
 * Revelation -** The divine or supernatural disclosure to humans of something relating to human existence or the world.
 * Conservative -** A class of Judaism where they modify the rules to correlate with modern times, although still abide by the same practices and rituals.
 * Orthadox -** Extremely strict, unmodified Judaism. Everything is practiced still as it was 100 years ago.
 * Progressive -** Judaism that is totally reformed to the modern times. It is not very structured.

=__Political Setting__=

=
From gathering all the given information, I have observed that during the time of Jesus, there was conflict and prejudice between the Gentiles and Jews. The Roman powers were not very accepting towards the Jewish religion and evidently showed this through their actions and decisions regarding the massacre. In society during Jesus' life, there were a variety of opinions towards what was considered right or wrong in regards to religion.======

=__Presbyterian__=

The Supreme Standard of the Church is the Word of God contained in the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments. The Subordinate Standard of the Church is the **Westminster Confession of Faith** read in the light of the **Declaratory Statement.**

We are Protestant, Evangelical and Reformed. **We believe that there is One God who is the Creator and Judge of the world. In the fullness of time He has revealed Himself as Father, Son and Holy Spirit.**
 * God has made Himself known in His infallible word, the Bible.
 * We believe that human beings are created in God's image. However, when Adam sinned, that image was stained and tarnished. We inherit Adam's fallen nature.
 * The penalty for sin is death, leading ultimately to the second death which is everlasting judgement.
 * The law reveals that we are sinners but does not save us.
 * Christ is the Lord from heaven who came to lead a sinless life, and offer Himself up as the sinless sacrifice to pay the death penalty which we deserve.
 * We cannot earn salvation. We can only receive it when the Holy Spirit enables us to have faith in Christ alone.
 * Trusting in Christ and not our own merits, we seek to live godly lives, loving God and our neighbour.
 * We seek to serve Christ in the fellowship of the body of His people, the Church. Our joining this body is signified by baptism, our ongoing commitment to Christ is signified by taking part in the Lord's Supper.

• The Presbyterian church started in the European Reformation of the 16th Century by John Calvin.

• The Church is split up unto a congregation and elders/presbyters (They are elected to preach the word). These presbyteries can then be classified into 'Synods' which are like districts of followers.

• The Presbyterian religion only has two sacraments. These are Baptism and the Lord's supper.

• Beliefs are centralised around the Word of God (66 books of the Old and New Testaments.

• Praise, prayer and preaching the word of God is what Presbyterians are encouraged to do, so they may bring glory to God.


 * The Authority of Scripture - Our knowledge of God and God's purpose for humanity comes from the Bible, particularly what is revealed in the New Testament through the life of Jesus Christ.
 * Justification by Grace through Faith - Our salvation (justification) through Jesus is God's generous gift to us and not the result of our own accomplishments.
 * The Priesthood of All Believers - It is everyone's job - ministers and lay people alike - to share this Good News with the whole world. The Presbyterian church is governed at all levels by a combination of clergy and laity, men and women alike.
 * The Sovereignty of God - God is the supreme authority throughout the universe.

=__**Personal Prayer**__= Personal prayer refers to how individuals pray by themselves rather than in a congregation. It is encouraged and varies within the different variations of Christianity. This prayer strengthens the relationship with God, and is a certain time of reflection that builds the trust and faith in Him. It is so important to Christian adherents because it acknowledges and strengthens the relationship between man and God and reinforces that the life of an individual is lives for the sole purpose of fulfilling God's will.

Orthodox personal prayer can is categorised as 'formal' personal prayers. There are certain allocated times where praying is ritual, such as the beginning and end of each day, before starting work or study and before and after meals. There are certain prayers for each of these times which are the prayers that were bestowed by Jesus himself. This is because it is believed that they are beautiful, wise and have walked closely with God, and that is what is believed to be the best expression of faith and communication to God.
 * Orthodox Personal Prayer**

Protestant personal prayer is more reformed and up to the interpretation of the individual. They practice 'extemporaneous' prayer which means it has no allocated structure and it is done without preparation. This means that a Protestant adherent can pray at any given time, about anything to God, even if it is not traditional.
 * Protestant Personal Prayer**

The Catholic church has a mixture of formal and informal (extemporaneous) prayer. It can be regarded as the 'conservative' denomination of Christianity where some flexibility is accepted. They believe that it is communication to God, although not disrespectfully. Throughout any prayer it should be remembered that God is the Lord, Master and the Creator of the universe and that respect should be upheld.
 * Catholic Personal Prayer**

=__Islam__= • The Religion of Islam began in the holy city of Mecca in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia by God's revelation of the Quran to the prophet Muhammad in the year 610 AD through the Angel Gabriel. • Muhammad was an Islamic preacher and leader of community. He had to major phases to his life. He proclaimed his message to the city, but was rejected by the majority of the population. This is because the introduction of monotheism threatened the system of polytheism that already existed.

=__**Muhammad**__= • Born around 570 CE in the city of Mecca, Arabia. • Muhammad means 'highly praised'. Abu al-Qasim Muhammad Ibn Abd Allah Ibn Abd al-Muttalib Ibn Hashim is his full name. • He was the last prophet of the Islamic religion. • His father died before he was born and his mother died when he was 6 and so he was brought up by his paternal uncle. • Muhammad was making a living being a businessman and trader. • He went to Mount Hira for meditation where he had his first sighting of the Arch Angel Gabrielle. • "Recite in the name of your Lord who created! He created man from that which clings. Recite; and thy Lord is most Bountiful, He who has taught by the pen, taught man what he knew not." • The Angel Gabrielle visited Muhammad on a number of occasions over 23 years. He taught him how to recite the scriptures and verses and he told his scribes to record it. This is how the Quran was composed. • Muslims believe that Muhammad was a messenger of Allah ('The One and Only God) and the last of the prophets sent by Allah to guide man to the right path. • The Prophet's mission was to restore the worship of the One True God, the creator and sustainer of the universe, as taught by Prophet Abraham and all Prophets of God, and to demonstrate the laws of moral, ethical, legal, and social conduct. • Islam means peace by submission and obedience to the Will and Commandments of God. • Those who accept Islam are called Muslims, meaning those who have accepted the message of peace by submission to God. • Before he died in 632, Muhammad had established the religious practices known as "the five pillars of Islam." They are declaring the oneness of Allah and his messenger Muhammad; praying five times a day; fasting during the month of Ramadan; giving to charity; and making the pilgrimage to Mecca. • Muhammad is the model of Qur'anic behavior for Muslims. They mention his name by adding "peace be upon him," a phrase used with the name of all the prophets. • He was a military commander, law giver, chief judge, ruler and prophet of God. • Supported by miracles. • Morally & intellectually best in the community - he was a role model. • Became infallible after receiving the message.

**Movie Notes - Muhammad** • 'The Messenger' • Being an outsider he gained a new perspective on things. Especially about people that were excluded. • Detrimental to grow up without parents, but he was able to adapt to all his new fathers/caretakers. So he was the child of everybody. • Oral culture, tremendous respect for people who could express themselves orally (especially poetry). • 'The Word' has a mystical importance. It celebrated their victories and remembered their defeats. • His uncle taught him many skills, such as the bow and arrow. • Pre-islamic people worshipped spirits that were nature based. 'Kaba' was one of these sanctuaries. It provided a rare place of peace that people had to truce. • Mecca - There was a rich mixture of cultures. Arabs, Jews, Christians. • Muhammad became a merchant - flare of trade. His talents caught the eye of a wealthy widow. She proposed to him. • Very intelligent and open minded man. Was able to communicate with a great variety of people. Great charisma skills. He was able to solve alot of disputes. • Became known as 'The trusted one'. • Beginning of the prophetic career of Muhammad was when the archangel Gabrielle visited him. • Muhammad was to bear one message, a simple yet radical proclamation - That there is only ONE God. (Monotheism). • Divine unity • Social justice orientated. • New order, new way of life where everyone was equal. One God, One People. • Many were moved by his messag*e as he spoke out. Muhammad is not a poet, he does not speak through a voice of desire, he speaks through a voice of God. • Muslim - Those who surrender to God. • Revelations of the ethical teachings of God. It was written and remains in Arabic. With words alone, it delivers its message to the faithful. • Water and paradise are tied together. • A lot of imagery of paradise in the Qur'an. There is no description of God as such. • Beauty of the Qur'an that is celebrated in the Islamic religion. • Muhammad wasn't divine. No pictures. They are not images that are meant to be worshipped. They aren't devotional images, they are more for learning purposes in regards to learning about the history behind the Islamic religion. • To be a prophet, you must have made a miracle. Muhammad's miracle was the Qur'an. • Muhammad and his teachings/claims of Islam created controversy within society because of this rejection of polytheism. • Muhammad's followers were persecuted. • Muhammad was a peacemaker. Did not provoke war and conflict. • Leaving their families and homes was the ultimate test of devotionk • Unity and peace with his message. • He wanted to achieve harmony. He offered a vision of solidarity, but was careful not to force his beliefs upon other faiths. • Call to prayer has the first pillar in it - The declaration of faith • While he was in Medina he Got a revelation for his believers to face a certain wall while praying. • Muslims were often out numbered while they battled. • Muhammad came to destroy the Pagan Gods. • Muslims did not say 'Convert or Die'. Big misunderstanding. • As the Muslim community grew, they built a huge Mosque. • Arabs transformed their conquered lands. Developing and expanding the infrastructure. • Muhammad never lived to see the big masterpiece.

= Random Islam Facts = • Abraham is the Father of all monotheistic Religions. • Adam was the first prophet. • The Creation story is the same in all three religions. • Belief in the Garden of Eden - This is the paradise to which we return when we die if worthy. • They were more merciful warriors. • Allowed self-government and treated people, even captives, with dignity. • Helped develop the towns and cities they took over. • They allowed religious customs of the people the be still practiced as normal. • Water was a very important resource and the Muslims used many methods to bring water to the regions under their control

=Seven Articles of faith =
 * One God;
 * The angels of God;
 * The books of God, especially the Qur'an;
 * The prophets of God, especially Muhammad;
 * The Day of Judgment (or the afterlife); and
 * The supremacy of God's will (or predestination)

**-Allah:** There is only One God (Monotheistic religion).  **-Tawhid:** The belief in the oneness of God and witnesses the dismissal of all other deities.  **-Angels:** Angels are instruments of God's will. The existence of spiritual beings that carry Allah's will around the world.  **-Books of Allah:** The revelation of God's intentions. Especially in reference to the Qur'an.  **- Rusula:** The messengers or prophets of God, especially Muhammad.  **- Al - Akhira:** The idea of life after death, resurrection and final judgement. Divine judgement will result in eternal reward or punishment  **- Fate/Predesintation:** The free will to chose between good and evil, preferably good. It is the supremacy of God's will.

>> God has no father nor mother, no sons nor daughters. He has not fathered anyone nor was He fathered. None equal to Him. He is God of all mankind, not of a special tribe or race. >> God is High and Supreme but He is very near to the pious thoughtful believers; He answers their prayers and helps them. He loves the people who love Him and forgives their sins. He gives them peace, happiness, knowledge and success. >> God is the Loving and the Provider, the Generous and the Benevolent, the Rich and the Independent, the Forgiving and the Clement, the Patient and the Appreciative, the Unique and the Protector, the Judge and the Peace. God's attributes are mentioned in the Quran. >> God creates in man the mind to understand, the soul and conscience to be good and righteous, the feelings and sentiments to be kind and humane. If we try to count His favours upon us, we cannot, because they are countless. >> In return for all the great favours and mercy, God does not need anything from us, because he is Needless and Independent. >> God asks us to know Him, to love Him and to enforce His Law for our own benefit and our own good. >> >> All messengers were mortals, human beings, endowed with Divine revelations and appointed by God to teach mankind. The HolyQuran mentions the names of 25 messengers and prophets and states that there are others. These include Noah, Abrahim, Ishmael, Isaac, Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad. Their message is the same and it is Islam and it came from One and the Same Source; God, and it is to submit to His will and to obey his law, ie, to become a Muslim. >> >> Revelations were given to guide the people to the right path of God. The Quran refers to the books revealed to Abrahim, Moses, David, Jesus and Muhammad. >> Today, the books before the Quran do not exist in their original form. They are lost or corrupted or concealed. Weakness in the early period of Judaism and Christianity are partly responsible. >> Today the Quran is the only authentic and complete book of God. No scholar has questioned the fact that the Quran today is the same as it was more than 1400 years ago. Muslims till today memorize the Quran word by word as a whole or in part. >> God who revealed the Quran is protecting it from being lost, corrupted, or concealed. >> >> They are purely spiritual and splendid beings created by God. They require no food or drink or sleep. They have no physical desires nor material needs. >> Angels spend their time in the service of God. Each charged with a certain duty. Angels cannot be seen by the naked eyes. Knowledge and truth are not entirely confined to sensory knowledge or sensory perception alone. >> >> This world as we know it will come to an end and the dead will rise to stand for their final and fair trial. Everything we do, say, make, intend and think are accounted for and kept in accurate records. They are brought up on the day of Judgement. >> People with good records will be generously rewarded and warmly welcomed to God's Heaven. People with bad records will be fairly punished and cast into Hell. >> The real nature of Heaven and Hell are known to God only, but they are described by God in man's familiar terms in the Quran. >> If some good deeds are seen not to get full appreciation and credit in this life, they will receive full compensation and be widely acknowledged on the Day of Judgement. >> If some people who commit sins, neglect God and indulge in immoral activities seem superficially successful and prosperous in this life, absolute justice will be done to them on the Day of Judgement. >> The time of the Day of Judgement is only known to God and God alone. >> >> "Qadaa" and "Qadar" means the Timeless Knowledge of God and His power to plan and execute His plans. God is not indifferent to this world nor is He neutral to it. >> God is Wise, Just and Loving and whatever He does must have a good motive, although we may fail sometimes to understand it fully. >> We should have strong faith in God and accept whatever He does because our knowledge is limited and our thinking is based on individual consideration, whereas His knowledge is limitless and He plans on a universal basis. >> Man should think, plan, and make sound choices, but if things do not happen the way he wants, he should not lose faith and surrender himself to mental strains or shattering worries. >> >> Worshipping God does not mean we spend our entire lives in constant seclusion and absolute meditation. To worship God is to live life according to His commands, not to run away from it. >> To worship God is to know Him, to love Him, to obey His commands, to enforce His laws in every aspect of life, to serve His cause by doing right and shunning evil and to be just to Him, to ourselves and to our fellow human beings. >> >> Man occupies this distinguished position because he alone is gifted with rational faculties and spiritual aspirations as well as powers of action. >> Man is not a condemned race from birth to death, but a dignified being potentially capable of good and noble achievements. >> >> Every person is endowed by God with spiritual potential and intellectual inclination that can make him a good Muslim. >> Every person's birth takes place according to the will of God in realization of His plans and in submission to His commands. >> >> When the person reaches the age of maturity and if he is sane, he becomes accountable for all his deeds and intentions. Man is free from sin until he commits sin. >> There is no inherited sin, no original sin. Adam committed the first sin, he prayed to God for pardon, and God granted Adam pardon. >> >> No one can act on behalf of another or intercede between him and God. >> In order, to obtain salvation a person must combine faith and action, belief and practice. Faith without doing good deeds is as insufficient as doing good deeds without faith. >> >> If people do not know and have no way of knowing about Islam, they will not be responsible for failing to be Muslim. Every Muslim must preach Islam words and in action. >> >> Man must build his faith on well-grounded convictions beyond any reasonable doubt and above uncertainty. >> Islam insured freedom to believe and forbids compulsion in religion. (one of the oldest synagogues and one of the oldest churches in the world are in Muslim countries). >> The Quran was revealed from God on various occasions to answer questions, solve problems, settle disputes and to be man's best guide to the truth. >> The Quran was revealed in Arabic and it is still in its original and complete Arabic version until today. It is memorized by millions. >> **15. A Muslim believes in a clear distinction between the Quran and the Traditions of the Prophet Muhammad.** Whereas the Quran is the word of God, the Traditions of Prophet Muhammad (his teachings, sayings, and actions) are the practical interpretations of the Quran. Both the Quran and the Traditions of the Prophet Muhammad are the primary sources of knowledge in Islam.
 * II. Articles of Faith**
 * 1) **A Muslim believes in One God, Supreme and Eternal, Infinite and Mighty, Merciful and Compassionate, Creator and Provider.**
 * 1) **A Muslim believes in all the Messengers and Prophets of God without any discrimination.**
 * 1) **A Muslim believes in all scriptures and revelations of God, as they were complete and in their original versions.**
 * 1) **A Muslim believes in the angels of God.**
 * 1) **A Muslim believes in the day of Judgement.**
 * 1) **A Muslim believes in "Qadaa" and "Qadar".**
 * 1) **A Muslim believes that the purpose of life is to worship God.**
 * 1) A **Muslim believes that man enjoys an especially high ranking status in the hierarchy of all known creatures.**
 * 1) **A Muslim believes that every person is born "Muslim".**
 * 1) **A Muslim believes that every person is born free from sin**.
 * 1) **A Muslim believes that man must work out his salvation through the guidance of God.**
 * 1) **A Muslim believes that God does not hold any person responsible until he has shown him the Right Way.**
 * 1) **A Muslim believes that faith is not complete when it is followed blindly or accepted unquestioningly.**
 * 1) **A Muslim believes that the Quran is the word of God revealed to prophet Muhammad through the Angel Gabriel.**

__ **The Third Pillar - Almsgiving/Zakat** __ • Islam places great importance on charity. • This was first demonstrated when the Prophet prescribed a minimum charity tax (**Zakat**). The tax is of 2.5% on their money and possessions of those who have enough to meet their basic needs. • In contemporary times, Zakat is difficult to impose on Muslims although the principle is strongly upheld. • There is emphasis placed on personal/private charity (**sadaqa**) that is established by the individuals want and desire to help the poor. • All good that is done, especially the things that don't get recognised are said to be ultimately rewarded by Allah. •This pillar influences the adherents to participate wholly on their own accords to fulfil the spiritual element regarded as the Third Pillar. The ultimate reward from Allah, encourages and drives the believers to be better people, which essentially gives them purpose and answers the large questions of being.